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An expert is somebody who has a broad and deep understanding and competence in terms of knowledgeskill and experience through practice and education in a particular field. Informally, an expert is someone widely recognized as a reliable source of technique or adobe photoshop cc 64 bit free whose faculty for judging or deciding rightly, justly, or wisely is accorded authority and status by peers or the public in a specific well-distinguished domain.
An expert, more generally, is a person with extensive knowledge or ability based on research, experience, or occupation and in a particular area of study.
Experts are called in for advice on their respective subject, but they do not always agree on the particulars of a field of study. An expert can be believed, by virtue of credentialsexpert pdf 12 freeeducationprofessionpublication or experienceto have special knowledge of a на этой странице beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially and legally rely upon the individual's opinion on that topic.
Historically, an expert was referred to as a sage. The individual was usually a profound thinker distinguished for wisdom and sound judgment. In specific fields, the definition expert pdf 12 free expert is well established by consensus and therefore it is not always necessary for individuals to have a professional or academic qualification for them to be accepted as an expert.
In this respect, a shepherd with 50 years of experience tending flocks would be widely recognized as having complete expertise in the use and training of sheep dogs and the care of sheep. Another example from computer science is that an expert system may be taught by a human and thereafter considered expert pdf 12 free expert, often outperforming human beings at particular tasks. In lawan expert witness must be recognized by argument and authority.
Research in this area attempts to understand the relation between expert knowledge, skills and personal characteristics and exceptional performance. Some researchers have investigated the cognitive structures and processes of experts. The fundamental aim of this research is to describe what it is that experts know and how they use their knowledge to achieve performance that most people assume requires extreme or extraordinary ability. Studies have investigated the factors that enable experts to be fast and accurate.
Expertise characteristics, skills and knowledge of a person that is, expert or of a system, which distinguish experts from novices and less experienced people. In many domains there are objective measures of performance capable of distinguishing experts from novices: expert chess players will almost always win games against recreational chess players; expert medical specialists are more likely to diagnose a disease correctly; etc.
The word expertise is used to refer also to Expert Determination, where an expert is invited to decide a disputed issue. The decision may be binding or advisory, according to the agreement between the parties in dispute. There are two academic approaches to the understanding and study of expertise. The first understands expertise as an emergent property of communities of practice. In this view expertise is socially constructed; tools for вот ссылка and scripts for action are jointly constructed within social groups enabling that group jointly to define and acquire expertise in some domain.
In the expert pdf 12 free view, expertise is a characteristic of individuals and is a consequence of the human capacity for extensive adaptation to physical and social environments.
Many accounts of the development of expertise emphasize that it comes about through long periods of deliberate practice.
In many domains of expertise estimates of 10 years' experience [2] deliberate practice are common. Recent research on expertise emphasizes the nurture side of the nature and nurture argument. In the field of education there is a potential "expert blind spot" see expert pdf 12 free Dunning—Kruger effect expert pdf 12 free newly practicing educators who are experts in their content expert pdf 12 free. This is based on the "expert blind spot hypothesis" researched by Mitchell Nathan and Andrew Petrosino.
The blind spot metaphor refers to the physiological blind spot in human vision in which perceptions of surroundings and circumstances are strongly impacted by their expectations. Beginning practicing educators tend to overlook the importance of novice levels of prior knowledge and other factors involved in adjusting and adapting pedagogy for learner understanding.
In line with the socially constructed view of expertise, expertise can also be understood as a form of power ; that is, experts have the ability to influence others as a result of their defined social status. By a similar token, a fear of experts can arise from fear of an intellectual elite's power.
In earlier periods of history, simply being able to read made one part of an intellectual elite. The introduction of the printing press in Europe during the fifteenth century and the diffusion of printed matter contributed to higher literacy rates and wider access to the expert pdf 12 free knowledge of academia.
The subsequent spread of education and learning changed society, and initiated an era of widespread education whose elite would now instead be those who produced the written content itself for consumption, in education and all other spheres. Plato's " Noble Lie ", concerns expertise.
Plato did not believe most people were clever enough to look after their own and society's best interest, so the few clever people of the world needed to lead the rest of the flock. Therefore, the idea was born that only the elite should know the truth in its complete form and the rulers, Plato said, must tell the people of the city "the noble lie" to keep them passive and content, without the risk of upheaval and unrest.
In contemporary society, doctors and scientists, for example, are considered to be experts in that they hold a body of dominant knowledge that is, on the whole, inaccessible to the layman. Instead, the complete opposite occurs whereby members of the public believe in and highly value the opinion of medical professionals or of scientific discoveries, [11] despite not understanding it. A number of computational models have been developed in cognitive science to explain the development from novice to expert.
In particular, Herbert A. More recently, the CHREST model Chunk Hierarchy and REtrieval STructures has simulated in detail a number of phenomena in chess expertise eye movements, performance in a variety of memory tasks, development from novice to expert and in other domains. An important feature of expert performance seems to be the way in which experts are able to rapidly retrieve complex configurations of information from long-term memory.
They recognize situations because they have meaning. It is perhaps this central concern with meaning and how it attaches to situations which provides an important link between the individual and social approaches to the development of expertise.
Staszewski confronts the paradox of expertise and claims that people not only acquire content knowledge as they practice cognitive skills, they also develop mechanisms that enable them to use a large and familiar knowledge base efficiently. Work on expert systems computer software designed to provide an answer to a problem, or clarify uncertainties where normally one or more human experts would need to be consulted typically is grounded on the premise that expertise is based on acquired repertoires of rules and frameworks expert pdf 12 free decision making which can be elicited as the expert pdf 12 free for computer supported judgment and decision-making.
However, there is increasing evidence that expertise does not work in this fashion. Expert pdf 12 free, experts recognize situations based on experience of many prior situations. They are in consequence able to make rapid decisions in complex and dynamic situations.
If one asks an expert for the rules he or she is using, one will, in effect, force the expert to regress to the level of a beginner and state the rules learned in school.
Thus, instead of using rules they no longer remember, as knowledge engineers suppose, the expert is forced to remember rules they no longer use. The role of long-term memory in the skilled memory effect was first articulated by Chase and Simon in their classic studies of chess expertise. They asserted that organized patterns of information stored in long-term memory chunks mediated experts' rapid encoding and superior retention.
Their study revealed that all subjects retrieved about the same number of chunks, but the size of the chunks varied with subjects' prior experience.
Experts' chunks contained more individual pieces than those of novices. This research did not investigate how experts find, distinguish, and retrieve the right chunks from the vast number they hold without a lengthy search of long-term memory. Skilled memory enables experts to rapidly encode, store, expert pdf 12 free retrieve information within the domain of their expertise and thereby circumvent the capacity limitations that typically constrain novice performance.
For example, it explains experts' ability to recall large amounts of material displayed for only brief study intervals, provided that the material comes from their domain of expertise. When unfamiliar material not from their domain of expertise is presented to experts, their recall is no better than that of novices. The first principle of skilled memory, the meaningful encoding principle, states that experts exploit prior knowledge to durably encode information needed to perform a familiar task successfully.
Experts form more elaborate and accessible memory representations than novices. Expert pdf 12 free elaborate semantic memory network creates meaningful memory codes that create multiple potential cues and avenues for retrieval.
The second principle, the retrieval structure principle states that experts develop memory mechanisms called retrieval structures to facilitate the retrieval of information stored expert pdf 12 free long-term memory. These mechanisms operate in a fashion consistent with the meaningful encoding principle to provide cues that can later be regenerated to retrieve the stored information efficiently without a lengthy search. The third principle, expert pdf 12 free speed up principle states that long-term memory encoding and retrieval operations speed up with practice, so that their speed and accuracy approach the speed and accuracy of short-term memory storage and retrieval.
Examples of skilled memory research described in the Ericsson and Expert pdf 12 free study include: [1]. Much of the research regarding expertise involves the studies of autodesk maya 2012 free experts and novices differ in solving problems. One of the most cited works in this area examines how experts PhD students in physics and novices undergraduate students that completed one semester of mechanics categorize and represent physics problems.
They found that novices sort problems into categories based upon surface features e. Experts, however, categorize problems based expert pdf 12 free their deep structures i. Marie-Line Germain developed a psychometric measure of perception of employee expertise called the Generalized Expertise Measure. Objective items were named Evidence-Based items.
Subjective items the remaining 11 items from the measure below were named Self-Enhancement items because of their behavioral component. Scholars in rhetoric have also turned their attention to the concept of the expert.
Considered an appeal to ethos or "the personal character of the speaker", [22] established expertise allows a speaker to make statements regarding special topics of which the audience may be ignorant.
In other words, the expert enjoys the deference of the audience's judgment and can appeal to authority where a non-expert cannot.
In The Rhetoric of Expertise, E. Johanna Hartelius defines two basic modes of expertise: autonomous and attributed expertise. While an autonomous expert can "possess expert knowledge without recognition from other people," attributed expertise is "a performance that may or may not indicate genuine knowledge.
The problem faced by audiences follows from the problem facing free ableton live for windows 7 free when faced with competing claims of expertise, what resources do non-experts have to evaluate claims put before them? Expert pdf 12 free and other scholars have also noted the challenges that projects such as Wikipedia pose to how experts have traditionally constructed their authority.
In "Wikipedia and the Emergence of Dialogic Expertise", she highlights Wikipedia as an example of the "dialogic expertise" made possible by collaborative digital spaces.
Expert pdf 12 free upon the notion that "truth emerges from dialogue", Wikipedia challenges traditional expertise both because anyone can edit it and because no single person, regardless of their credentials, can end a discussion by fiat. In other words, the expert pdf 12 free, rather than single individuals, direct the course of discussion. The production of knowledge, then, as a process of dialogue and argumentation, becomes an inherently rhetorical activity.
It is also fundamentally contingent on a struggle for expert pdf 12 free and legitimacy. Rather than leaving each other out, substance and communicative style are complementary. Wikipedia's use of hyperlinks to connect one topic to another depends on, and develops, electronic interactivity meaning that Wikipedia's way of knowing is dialogic.
As Hartelius explains, "the very act of presenting information about topics that are not included in traditional encyclopedias is a construction of new expertise. Knowledge production is created as a function of dialogue. Building on Hartelius, Damien Pfister developed the concept of "networked expertise". Noting that Wikipedia employs a "many to many" rather than a "one to one" model of communication, he notes how expertise likewise shifts to become a quality of a group rather than an individual.
With the information traditionally associated with individual experts now stored within a text produced by a collective, knowing about something is less important than knowing how to find something. As he puts it, "With expert pdf 12 free internet, the historical power of subject matter expertise is eroded: the archival nature of the Web means that what and how to information is readily available. An expert differs from the specialist in that a specialist has to be able to solve a problem expert pdf 12 free an expert has to know its solution.
The expert pdf 12 free of an expert is generally known as a layperson, while someone who occupies a middle grade of understanding is generally known as expert pdf 12 free technician and often employed to assist experts.
A person may well be an expert in one field and a layperson in many other fields.
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